Race-Based Data Collection on Police-Civilian Interactions

According to the Ontario Human Rights Commission, black people are more likely to be killed by Toronto police officers, nearly 20 times more likely. There is a lot of distrust between the Toronto police and the minorities, which begs the question of whether there is a racial angle towards police brutality. Black people in Toronto make up just 8.8% of the population, and they are 20 times more likely to suffer fatal shootings at the hands of the police, pointing to racial bias in police interactions with civilians. Toronto is suffering from fractured relationships between the police force and the non-Caucasian communities, relationships that stem from the brutality that is meted out by the police to these communities more than the Caucasian community. 

The Ontario Human Rights Commission report was a result of analyzing hundreds of reports from the Ontario Police that were previously inaccessible, reports on police investigations done by the police watchdog, the Special Investigations Unit. These reports were from two periods, 2000 to 2006, and from 2013 to 2017, where investigations revolved around police and civilian engagement that resulted in serious injury, death or sexual assault allegations. These reports showed that black people were over-represented in all the spheres the commission was investigating, from the use of force, sexual assault and unjustified and inappropriate searches and charges, which showed an obvious racial bias and discrimination. 7 out of 10 or 70% of fatal shooting cases reviewed by the commission turned out to be back people, despite black people making 8.8% of Toronto’s population. This is a shocking revelation that shows just how much of a shift in Toronto policing is required. There clearly is anti-black racism in the Toronto Police Service. 

An analysis of the OHRC report shows that as the seriousness of police conduct and lethal outcome of this conduct increases, so does the over-representation of black people in the statistics. Despite all these facts, and obvious practices that clearly show bias and racism, the Toronto Police Service has denied the accusations of systemic racism, but has however accepted the recommendations of the OHCR report to improve race-based data collection. According to the report, in the period between 2013 and 2017, black people were involved in 36 of 125 cases that involved the SIU use of force, leading to serious injury or death. They were also involved in 9 out of 15 police shootings that also resulted in serious injury or death. Black people were also involved in 8 out of 13 cases of use of force that resulted in civilian deaths. This is an overwhelming over-representation of black people in such cases, when you consider the population of black people to white people in Toronto, which makes it appear as though most crime in Toronto is committed by black people, who make up 8.85 of the population, as opposed to white people, who make up about 47.7%. Any reasonable person would conclude systemic bias in the Toronto Police Service.

There are other areas of research that need to be carried out regarding police relations with black people, like looking into patterns in the data collected, but recommendations made in the meantime include race-based data collection for the Toronto Police Service, the Toronto Police Service Board and other levels of government. The police commissioner has agreed that data collection is foundational in dealing with racial discrimination by law enforcement, pointing to data collection exercises in the United States and the United Kingdom. He, however, in the same breath acknowledged that the Toronto Police Service does not consistently collect race-based data, and they have never been required to do so by the police board. The findings of the OHRC report were disturbing to the police commissioner and in need of immediate action to remedy the situation. 

The black community in Toronto is, however, not shocked by the findings of the OHRC report. They have been living with these atrocities all their lives, being profiled, and being the recipient of discriminatory and racially biased police actions that have in many cases led to unjustified serious injuries or loss of life. They are also not very impressed with the recommendations, with others saying they have seen this move before, racial data on police interactions collected, the black community studied and nothing done to remedy their predicament with the Toronto Police Service. According to them, this will be another report that simply gathers dust on a shelf, and the current situation of police bias and discrimination will persist. For this issue to be solved, the police service needs to acknowledge that they have a racial discrimination problem in the force, not refusing to acknowledge a systemic issue exists and calling for the OHRC report to be scrutinized to ensure it is fair and that it places the incidents investigated into proper context. 

References

Star Editorial Board. (2019). Time to collect race-based data on police interactions with civilians.

The Star. Retrieved from https://www.thestar.com/opinion/editorials/2019/09/15/time-to-collect-race-based-data-on-police-interactions-with-civilians.html

Cecco L. (2018). Black Toronto residents 20 times more likely to be shot dead by police, study

says. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/dec/10/toronto-black-residents-more-likely-shot-dead-ontario-human-rights-commission-report

Policy Differences between Trump and Trudeau

The relationship between Canada and America has for long been the envy of many nations across the world. The two sovereign allies are members of two military alliances, have some of the most extensive and balanced trade deals in existence and are long term trade partners. Sure, there are many times they have disagreed, especially on matters to do with domestic and international policies. However, each nation has its own perspectives and values, which infirm their domestic and foreign policies, thus creating the existing policy differences.

The immigration policies of Justin Trudeau’s Liberal Government and those of the Trump administration could not be further apart. The Trump administration has taken a stringent position on immigration, making it harder for immigrants, especially from poor and conflict-ridden countries to enter the country and seek asylum. We have seen report of children separated from their parents, and put in cages at America’s southern border. Canada on the other hand has opted to welcome these immigrants in a bid to impose diversity to Canadians. The Prime Minister believes that Canada should transition into a post-national state, without a core identity, towards a pluralistic and poly-ethnic society (Havers, 2019).

Abortion policies are serious contentious issues in both countries, and the current governments have different positions. The Trump administration is pro-life, and it has created policies that are in line with this stand, most notably defunding Planned Parenthood. According to Mccammon (2019), organization and facilities that provide abortion services are denied family planning funds, and the courts have actually allowed this policy to continue operating after it was challenged. Trudeau’s Liberal government on the other hand is strongly pro-choice, with anti-abortion liberals barred from seeking political office on a liberal ticket since pro-choice is the official liberal stand on abortion (Kilpatrick, 2014).

According to Brandy (2017), ever since Trump became president, he has rolled back Obama era policies on climate change and withdrawn America from the Paris Agreement, making America the only nation in the world not to ratify this agreement. His administration has also made significant budget cuts to programs tasked with research of renewable energy and contradicted the findings of the scientific community on climate change. Justin Trudeau’s administration does not get a thumbs up either when it comes to climate change, but the government’s stand has never changed. The Liberal administration in Canada has always seen climate change as a significant threat, and has implemented measures such as a carbon emission tax that is aimed at reducing carbon emissions by making it more expensive to emit carbon (Austen, 2018). 

These differences, with the current administrations seem irreconcilable to me, with the back and forth we have seen from Trump and Trudeau, especially on climate change and immigration. I do not think the Canadian and American governments have stark policy differences, but the rhetoric between the two leaders, especially from Trump is making the existing differences seem irreconcilable. These policy differences however do not make the two countries enemies, but rather two sovereign, independent countries being governed by administrations that have different perspectives and values.

References

Havers G. (2019). Immigration Policy: Lessons from Canada, Law & Liberty, Retrieved from

https://www.lawliberty.org/2019/06/03/immigration-policy-lessons-from-canada/

Kilpatrick S. (2014)."Justin Trudeau says anti-abortion candidates can't run as Liberals".

National Post. The Canadian Press. Retrieved from https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/justin-trudeau-says-anti-abortion-candidates-cant-run-as-liberals

Mccammon S. (2019). Planned Parenthood Withdraws From Title X Program Over Trump

Abortion Rule, National Public Radio Inc. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2019/08/19/752438119/planned-parenthood-out-of-title-x-over-trump-rule

Brandy D. (2017). "As Syria embraces Paris climate deal, it's the United States against the

world". The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2017/11/07/as-syria-embraces-paris-climate-deal-its-the-united-states-against-the-world/

Austen I. (2018). Justin Trudeau fights carbon tax backlash from conservatives and liberals over

climate change policy, Independent, Reprieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/justin-trudeau-carbon-tax-canada-climate-change-backlash-paris-agreement-a8674756.html

HOW SOCIAL SCIENCES ADDRESS SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change is a term that is used to refer to a significant alteration in behavioral patterns and cultural norms which usually happens over time. With the use of the phrase “significant alteration,” the exact meaning is alterations or changes that result in deep, intense or great social consequences. Many social change examples stem from social movements that have inspired societal discontent which spurs them to bring about change. Social science, on the other hand, is the scientific study of human society and social relationships. Social change tends to come from either of two angles, random and unique factors or systematic factors, or a combination of both factors. Social sciences look into the causes, nature, and impacts of social change, and the influence that science has on society can do a lot of good, including ensuring that we have the most impact on society.

Anthropology can be described as the scientific study of humans and their behaviors in societies, whether in the past or present. Social anthropology has to deal with patterns of human behavior. Social change has a twofold relationship with anthropology, where one arm suggests that the long-time period of evolution of humans, be it biological or evolutionary, there exists immense evidence of the existence of social change. On the other hand, there are static views of culture and society that are caused by the microscopic time and space perspective of the systematic study of people and cultures. Change in this static view thus becomes abnormal and external, not caused by society. Anthropology and its association with social change look at the structure of society, how people in society interact as well as what happens when new elements are introduced into society (Dwyer & Minnegal 2010).

The functionalism theory in anthropology looks at the society, or the culture as an integrated whole or an interconnected ecosystem. From this viewpoint, individual institutions and customs cannot be looked at as isolated phenomena. Their full appreciation can only come in the context of the whole society and culture. They meet certain needs of the people in the society. Functionalists believe that the changes that a society goes through come from trying to meet the needs of a majority of its members adequately. The institution of marriage is one that has changed to meet the physical and psychological needs of the members of society to accept people of the same gender. The theory of cultural materialism also studies how change comes about in society, casting a spotlight on the physical materials and economic activities that are carried out within a given environment, assessing how ideas and ideologies are created. It can be an invention, like a new product or social pattern that affects and changes how members of society go about their daily lives (Dwyer & Minnegal 2010).

Social change looked at from the lens of psychology works as a connection between the changes in individual minds and social changes. Focus is put on how people in society think about each other as opposed to the group processes that allow for the spreading of concepts and attitudes. Social change looked at from the perspective of the Semantic Pointers theory looks at the full range of human thought through neural firings in the brain, which allows one to identify the full range of social interactions transmitting ideas beyond regular conversations and arguments. Non-verbal semantic pointers include singing or participating in religious rituals that fall under the category of collective activity. These pointers are also found in technologies like TV and Facebook. Because these pointers are inclusive of verbal and nonverbal communication, they provide a basis for the general communication theory of communication. This communication theory states that social changes come from the neural representations in people as well as exchanges between these people that interact with that is in their heads (Unkelbach 2013).

The general communication theory applied to social change in psychology suggests that social change results from a combination of communicative interactions that people have with one another, as well as their personal cognitive and emotional processes. This approach sees social change as a result of a multilevel dynamic that stems from social and mental mechanisms. These mental mechanisms include neural and molecular processes that make it possible for individuals to think. It starts as an idea, which is then validated with social changes in society. This suggests that social change starts with personal change, which births a commitment to having a community change in general. Social change causes increased awareness since there is more understanding because of the more information that society has. Because of this information, people can then make informed decisions, improve on civic participation that is attributable to the public having a change of attitude as a result of the social change (Unkelbach 2013).

Social change under sociological models tends to be characterized by changes in cultural symbols, behavioral rules, social organizations or the societal value systems. There have been analogies made between social change and the technological progress of the West, where structural functionalism was postulated as an approach to social change where certain institutions existed to determine social behavior. These institutions tend to be interrelated which means that a change in one institution would inevitably affect other institutions. According to McLeish (2013), there are theoretic schools that look into the different aspects of change, with the Marxist theory suggesting that when there are changes in the modes of production, there will be changes in the class systems, even causing the possibility of conflicts among the different classes. The Marxian theory of social change suggests that change is an inevitable, continuous process, and in this interpretation, a lot of importance is placed on the economic factor causing social change. According to the Marxian theory, if there is a change in the economy then there may be a change in the society, like a change in the production system. There is the conflict theory that looks into the very nature of a conflict to stir about change that promotes social integration. Under sociology, social change can emanate from sources that include contact with other societies, changes in the ecosystem, and changes in technology as well as demographic variables like population change (McLeish 2013).

Social sciences delve into human behavior and its impact on social and cultural aspects. Social changes happen more often than we think. The changes may be in small societies, like a church community, or large societies like entire countries, but all in all, change comes from random or unique factors like weather or some specific people who trigger this change. It also comes from systematic factors like availability of resources, stable governments or a diverse social organization of the society in question. Social sciences look into these and other factors, their impacts on society and the societal changes they trigger.

References

Dwyer, P., & Minnegal, M. 2010. Theorizing social change. The Journal of the Royal

Anthropological Institute, 16(3), 629-645. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40926126

Unkelbach, C. 2013. Social Psychology – Change and Consistency. Social Psychology, 44(1),

1-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000135

McLeish, J. 2013. The theory of social change. Routledge.

EFFECT OF CAFFEINE ON COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS

Caffeine is the second most popular beverage consumed after water, and the most preferred psycho-stimulant. It is a long standing habit to use caffeine to stay awake and alert. Its preference stems from its influence on cognitive performance, perception, alertness and wakefulness. Caffeine has a cognitive enhancement effect on people, where it temporarily improves a person’s energy, their concentration, and focus, which has a significant bearing on a person’s learning and memory ability.

We consume approximately 1.6 billion cups of coffee every day across the globe, with possible underlying motivations for its preference being concentration and memory enhancement as well as improvement in one’s physical performance, albeit temporarily. As opined by Cappelletti, et al. (2015), caffeine containing products have positive inotropic and chronotropic effects which influence the cardiovascular system. They also affect the nervous system with their loco-motor activity stimulation. When taken in low and moderate doses, caffeine has been shown to improve a person’s, concentration, vigilance as well as reaction times. It can be used to sustain a person’ attention and performance when they are engaging in a demanding task or when they are fatigued. When a person is fatigued because of restricted or irregular sleep patterns as in the case of factory shift workers and transport workers, repeated caffeine doses can help them maintain their physical and cognitive abilities, thereby reducing the instances of failure or accidents (Cappelletti, Piacentino, Sani, & Aromatario 2015).

Caffeine use has been shown to improve learning and memory as well as a person’s mood. Caffeine helps in the learning of tasks where the information is passively presented. It helps improve the performance of a person’s memory under suboptimal alert conditions. This essentially means that taking a dose of caffeine before a lecture would probably help you focus in class and remember more of what is taught. Evidence of caffeine improving memory and learning is sparse because the way that caffeine does this is by making you alert and awake. Because you are alert and awake in class, chances of remembering what was taught increase. Memory improvements are thus more visible when you are tired or when you lack interest in the content. There should be moderation, however, as increased caffeine intake causes increased tension and nervousness. With regards to mood enhancement, coffee taken every four hours has been shown to sustain a relative improvement in a person’s mood. When taken in lower doses, it brings about a sense of calmness and in higher doses, a reduced risk of depression (McLellan, Caldwell, & Lieberman 2016).

There is increasing evidence that shows moderate caffeine consumption can be protective against neurodegenerative diseases, like Alzheimer’s. Caffeine has been studied in relation to neurodegenerative diseases and their treatments and epidemiological reports have proven caffeine has neuroprotective properties. The neuroprotective properties of caffeine affect the activation or inhibition of A₁ and A_2A adenosine receptor subtypes which results in a reduction in hyperalgesia, inflammatory response, sensory and motor deficits and the cell death of the neurodegenerative diseases. 3-5 cups of coffee a day have been linked to a reduced risk of developing dementia in later life by up to 65%. Caffeine has also been proven to reduce motor and non-motor early onset symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (Cappelletti, et al. 2015).

There is no doubt about the cognitive effects of caffeine. There has to be something to the fact that coffee is the most preferred drink in the world, after water, which is the cognitive enhancing property of caffeine.  Caffeine is not a miracle substance as its impacts are seen through an increase in arousal, but it is an effective and safe method for someone looking for cognitive enhancement through increased alertness, better concentration, and improved mood.

References

Cappelletti, S., Piacentino, D., Sani, G., & Aromatario, M. 2015. Caffeine: cognitive and

physical performance enhancer or psychoactive drug? Current Neuropharmacology, 13(1), 71–88.

McLellan, T.M., Caldwell, J. & Lieberman, H.R. 2016. A Review of Caffeine's Effects on

Cognitive, Physical and Occupational Performance. Neuroscience and Bio-behavioral Reviews. 71. 

Effect of World Events on Oil Prices

The prices of oil are very inconsistent, up now, down the next day, which is something that has been happening for a long time now. There is no price consistency when it comes to oil. Throughout history, you can almost always link price fluctuations to various events that cause those changes. After WW2, prices reached $3 per barrel by 1960, which reelected moderate stability, but subsequent events have had a long lasting effect on oil prices.

The formation of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Counties (OPEC) in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela brought in a new regime in oil management. The organization unified the oil producing countries, allowing them to coordinate the petroleum policies of those countries and allow for stable prices to be introduced. Other counters like Qatar, Libya, Indonesia, the United Arab Emirates, and Nigeria joined OPEC, increasing its say on global petroleum issues, giving them power to control oil prices and thus power shifting from the U.S. to OPEC, where oil was concerned. Syria and Egypt attacked Israel in 1973, and with America and other countries, especially in the West supporting Israel, OPEC, and especially Arab exporting countries imposed an embargo which threatened to create a global oil shortage (Greenley, 2019).

The war and the embargo on oil caused oil to become un-affordable in many countries and America changed its oil policy to become self-sufficient in oil. Because of the price increase in oil in 1973-74, the U.S. imposed price controls on oil produced domestically, where American consumers paid 50% more for imported oil than they did domestic oil. Producers of oil in the US thus received less than the then world market price. The price controlled the recession that was taking place, but it hampered oil exploration in the U.S., slowing the U.S’s pursuit of oil self-sufficiency (Greenley, 2019). 

The Gulf war of 1990 was launched by Saddam Hussein when he invaded Kuwait with his Iraq forces. There was low oil production, thus a spike in the oil process erupted. After the Gulf war, crude oil prices started steadily declining to reach their lowest levels since the seventies. The American economy started picking up in 1994, and Asia Pacific started experiencing an economic boom, which saw oil consumption increase exponentially and American oil exports increased, as Russian production declined. The September 11 attacks caused crude oil prices to plummet, and OPEC cut its quota to 1.5 million barrels per day. Non OPEC oil producers also cut their quotas. Non OPEC countries, however, picked up production, and prices stabilized, and U.S. reserves reached a 20 year low as prices increased (Greenley, 2019).

History has shown that the US and other countries are involved in a predictable cycle where oil prices are concerned, affected by world events and America aligning its foreign policy with what would best benefit them. There is a long-standing relationship with Saudi Arabia, which has done and continues to do atrocious things, but because of a mutual benefit arrangement which includes the sale of oil to the U.S., the U.S. either says nothing when the international community is castigating Saudi Arabia, or openly stands with them when they are threatened.

References

Greenley L.H. (2019). The World Oil Market and U.S. Policy: Background and Select Issues for

Congress, Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov R45493